Note: the essay question that will appear on the exam will be a close approximation of one of the questions below that appear in red.
 

Concepts & Categories

1. Define these terms: concept, linear separability, family resemblance, ad hoc category, identifying features, psychological essentialism
2. Explain the following three theories of categorization: classical, prototype, and exemplar models. Cite one piece of evidence that favors the exemplar view over the prototype view.
3. (a) Describe the Classical view of concepts.  (b) Describe the Probabilistic/Prototype view of concepts and contrast it with the Classical view.  Describe two pieces of evidence that show that the Classical view has difficulty in accounting for how people make categorization decisions, and (d) explain how the Prototype view accounts for these two pieces of evidence.  Finally, (e) present one problem with the Prototype view.
4. What is the difference between a natural kind category and an artifact category, and why is this distinction important?

1. Define these terms:   state-action representation,  modus tollens,  incubation,  normative theory, . breaking set, base rate neglect, bias, posterior probability, principle of truth
2. Explain the difference between normative theories and descriptive theories.  Which of the following theories are normative and which are descriptive:
• Logic
• Models Theory
• Bayes' Theorem
• Pragmatic Reasoning Schemas
• Wallas’ stage theory of the creative process
3. Distinguish between these problem solving heuristics: hill climbing, means-ends analysis, and working backwards.  Which one faces the problem of local maximum?  Explain what that means.
4. Describe two problems that illustrate mental set or functional fixedness.
5. For any 3 of the following problem solving tasks, describe the task and the solution. How do people usually try to solve this problem, and where do they have difficulties or make errors? What does this descriptive pattern tell us about the psychology of problem solving?
• a. rats & cats problem
• b. tower of Hanoi
• c. game of Nim
• d. Wason 4 card selection task
• e. stomach tumor problem & related fortress problem
• f. Luchin's water jug task
• g. 8 penny problem
6. Describe 3 characteristics of expertise. How do experts differ from novices? Describe one situation where a novice can perform as well as or better than an expert.
7. Summarize two pieces of information showing that experts organize knowledge differently than novices do.
8. What does it mean to say that novices represent problems using surface structure while experts represent problems using deep structure?
9. How does practice contribute to expertise? How much practice is needed?
10. Describe the ACT-R theory of the development of expertise.
11. What is the difference between the validity vs. the factual truth of a conclusion?
12. (a) Explain what Wason’s 4 card selection task is and what the right answer is.  (b) According to logic, deductive arguments should be evaluated on the basis of their form (or deep structure), not content (or surface structure). Explain the difference between form and content. (c) Present once piece of evidence showing that performance on the selection task actually is influenced by content. (d) Finally, present a psychological explanation for the content effect.
13. Briefly describe three different descriptive theories that can account for errors people make in the 4 card selection tasks.
14. Normative theories of reasoning distinguish between form vs. content of an argument. Explain this distinction and describe one piece of evidence showing that people are actually influenced by content.
15. Describe Johnson-Laird's  Models Theory of deductive reasoning.  Which of the following two problems would it predit would be more difficult and why?  (In each problem, the participant has to judge whether the set of three statements is consistent. If it is consistent, the participant has to describe the properties of the chair such that all three statements would be true.). In addition to addressing the questions above, in your answer, make sure you address these points: (i) what is the meaning of "if and only if", (ii) what mental models would participants construct for each problem, according to Model Theory (actually show the models.)?

The chair is saleable if and only if it is elegant. The chair is elegant if and only if it is stable. The chair is saleable or it is stable, or both.

The chair is unsaleable if and only if it is inelegant. The chair is inelegant if and only if it is unstable. The chair is saleable or it is stable, or both.

16. Explain the difference between inductive and deductive reasoning.
17. Explain the difference between algorithm and heuristic.
18. A crime of paper-clip theft was committed last night in the psychology building.  Jason is one of 5 people who could have committed the crime (thus, prior probability that Jason is the thief = 20%).  Detective Chapman discovers type X blood at the crime scene.  If Jason had committed the crime there would be a 100% chance that type X blood would be at the crime scene (TPR=100%). If Jason didn’t commit the crime there would be only a 25% chance that type X blood would be at the crime scene.  Given that there is indeed type X blood at the crime scene, what is the probability that Jason is the thief?  Show how you arrived at your answer.
19. Are belief updating problems easier for lay people if the information is presented in terms of probabilitie or frequencies?  why?
20. What is analogical problem solving? Give an example in which you identify the base problem, the transfer problem, and the mapping.  List two factors that increase the likelihood that the problem solver will show transfer.
21. Explain how research on analogical problem solving shows that people are influenced by surface content as well as deep structure.

Creativity

1. What is creativity? Why might the Remote Associations Test and the Alternative Uses Test measure it?
2. Present one problem that illustrates creative problem solving and explain the principle that it illustrates.
3. What does the Smith & Blankenship (1991) study demonstrate about the role of incubation in creative problem solving?
4. Describe two theories of creativity. What predictions do they it make (if any?)
5. What (if anything) is special about insight problems?